United States Marine Corps, 1989
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This is the original version of the US Marine Corps' basic military philosophical manual, Warfighting. It was drafted by Captain John Schmitt under the direction of the USMC Commandant, General Alfred M. Gray. Both Schmitt and Gray insist privately that it is primarily driven by the ideas of the Chinese military sage Sun Tzu, not those of Clausewitz. However, one has only to read the chapter headings and look at the footnotes to see that the formal structure and language of the book is Clausewitzian. It's a bit pointless to worry about who was more influential, since Clausewitz and Sun Tzu's thinking overlaps in a great many important respects and both Gray and Schmitt are strong personalities with distinct quirks of their own. In our somewhat biased view, therefore, it is best seen as a tight summary of Carl von Clausewitz's On War, with a strong flavoring from Sun Tzu, a heavy bias toward maneuver warfare (which is NOT particularly Clausewitzian), and many reflections of Marine Corps culture. It was replaced in 1997 by its direct descendant, MCDP 1: Warfighting, also drafted by John Schmitt. The original remains valuable, and it is interesting to compare it with its successor.
FOREWORD
This book describes my philosophy on warfighting. It is the Marine Corps' doctrine and, as such, provides the authoritative basis for how we fight and how we prepare to fight.
By design, this is a small book and easy to read. It is not intended as a reference manual, but is designed to be read from cover to cover. There is a natural progression to its four chapters. Chapter 1 describes our understanding of the characteristics, problems, and demands of war. Chapter 2 derives a theory about war based on that understanding. This theory in turn provides the foundation for how we prepare for war and how we wage war, chapters 3 and 4 respectively.
You will notice that this book does not contain specific techniques and procedures for conduct. Rather, it provides broad guidance in the form of concepts and values. It requires judgment in application.
I expect every officer to read--and reread--this book, understand it, and take its message to heart. The thoughts contained here represent not just guidance for actions in combat, but a way of thinking in general. This manual thus describes a philosophy for action which, in war and in peace, in the field and in the rear, dictates our approach to duty.
A.M. GRAY
General, U.S. Marine Corps
Commandant of the Marine Corps
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. The Nature of War
War Defined - Friction - Uncertainty - Fluidity - Disorder -The Human Dimension - Violence and Danger - Moral and Physical Forces - The Evolution of War - Art and Science of War
Chapter 2. The Theory of War
War as an Instrument of Policy - Means in War - The Spectrum of Conflict - Levels of War - Offense and Defense - Styles of Warfare - Combat Power - Concentration and Speed - Surprise and Boldness - Exploiting Vulnerability and Opportunity
Chapter 3. Preparing for War
Planning - Organization - Doctrine - Leadership - Training - Professional Military Education - Equipping
Chapter 4. The Conduct of War
The Challenge - Maneuver Warfare - Philosophy of Command - Shaping the Battle - Decision Making - Mission Tactics - Commander's Intent - Focus of Effort - Surfaces and Gaps - Combined Arms
"Everything in war is simple, but the simplest thing is difficult.
The difficulties accumulate and end by producing a kind of friction that
is inconceivable unless one has experienced war."
--Carl von Clausewitz
"In war the chief incalculable is the human will."
--B. H. Liddell Hart
"Positions are seldom lost because they have been destroyed, but almost
invariably because the leader has decided in his own mind that the position
cannot be held."
--A. A. Vandegrift
To understand the Marine Corps' philosophy
of warfighting, we first need an appreciation for the nature of war itself--its
moral and physical characteristics and demands. A common view among Marines
of the nature of war is a necessary base for the development of a cohesive
doctrine.
WAR DEFINED
War is a state of hostilities that exists between or among nations, characterized
by the use of military force. The essence of war is a violent clash between
two hostile, independent and irreconcilable wills, each trying to impose
itself on the other.
Thus, the object of war is to impose our will on our enemy. The means
to that end is the organized application or threat of violence by military
force.
When significant disagreements cannot be settled
through peaceful means, such as diplomacy, nations resort to war. Nations
not at war with one another can be said to be at peace. However, absolute
war and peace rarely exist in practice. Rather, they are extremes between
which exist the relations among most nations. The need to resort to military
force of some kind may arise at any point within these extremes, even
during periods of relative peace. Thus, for our purposes war may range
from intense clashes between large military forces--backed by an official
declaration of war--to covert hostilities which barely reach the threshold
of violence.
FRICTION
So portrayed, war appears a simple enterprise. But in practice, because
of the countless factors that impinge on it, the conduct of war becomes
extremely difficult. These factors collectively have been called friction,
which Clausewitz described as "the force that makes the apparently easy
so difficult." Friction is the force that resists all action. It makes
the simple difficult and the difficult seemingly impossible.
The very essence of war as a clash between opposed
wills creates friction. It is critical to keep in mind that the enemy
is not an inanimate object but an independent and animate force. The enemy
seeks to resist our will and impose his own will on us. It is the dynamic
interplay between his will and ours that makes war difficult and complex.
In this environment, friction abounds.
Friction may be mental, as in indecision over a course of action. Or it
may be physical, as in effective enemy fire or a terrain obstacle that
must be overcome. Friction may be external, imposed by enemy action, the
terrain, weather, or mere chance. Or friction may be self-induced, caused
by such factors as lack of a clearly defined goal, lack of coordination,
unclear or complicated plans, complex task organizations or command relationships,
or complicated communication systems. Whatever form it takes, because
war is a human enterprise, friction will always have a psychological as
well as a physical impact.
While we should attempt to minimize self-induced friction, the greater
requirement is to fight effectively within the medium of friction. The
means to overcome friction is the will; we prevail over friction through
persistent strength of mind and spirit. While striving to overcome the
effects of friction ourselves, we must attempt at the same time to raise
our enemy's friction to a level that destroys his ability to fight.
We can readily identify countless examples of
friction, but until we have experienced it ourselves, we cannot hope to
appreciate it fully. Only through experience can we come to appreciate
the force of will necessary to overcome friction and to develop a realistic
appreciation for what is possible in war and what is not. While training
should attempt to approximate the conditions of war, we must realize it
can never fully duplicate the level of friction of real combat.
UNCERTAINTY
The next attribute of the environment of war is uncertainty. We might
argue that uncertainty is just one of many sources of friction, but because
it is such a pervasive trait of war we will treat it singly.
All actions in war take place in an atmosphere
of uncertainty- -the fog of war. Uncertainty prevades battle in the form
of unknowns about the enemy, about the environment, and even about the
friendly situation. While we try to reduce these unknowns by gathering
information, we must realize we cannot eliminate them. The very nature
of war makes absolute certainty impossible; all actions in war will be
based on incomplete, inaccurate, or even contradictory information.
At best, we can hope to determine probabilities. This implies a certain
standard of military judgment: what is probable and what is not? Through
this judgment of probability we make an estimate of our enemy's designs
and act accordingly. But, having said this, we also realize that it is
precisely those actions which fall outside the realm of probability that
often have the greatest impact on the outcome of war.
We must learn to fight in an environment of uncertainty,
which we can do by developing simple, flexible plans; planning for contingencies;
developing standing operating procedures; and fostering initiative among
subordinates.
By its nature, uncertainty invariably involves
the estimation and acceptance of risk. Risk is inherent in war and is
involved in every mission. Risk is also related to gain; normally, greater
potential gain requires greater risk. Further, risk is equally common
to action and inaction. The practice of concentrating combat power at
the focus of effort necessitates the willingness to accept prudent risk.
However, we should clearly understand that the acceptance of risk does
not equate to the imprudent willingness to gamble the entire likelihood
of success on a single improbable event.
Part of risk is the ungovernable element of chance.
The element of chance is a universal characteristic of war and a continuous
source of friction. Chance consists of turns of events that cannot reasonably
be foreseen and over which we and our enemy have no control. The uncontrollable
potential for chance along creates psychological friction. We should remember
that chance favors neither belligerent exclusively. Consequently, we must
view chance not only as a threat but also as an opportunity, which we
must be ever ready to exploit.
FLUIDITY
Like friction and uncertainty, fluidity is an integral attribute of the
nature of war. Each episode in war is the temporary result of a unique
combination of circumstances, requiring an original solution. But no episode
can be viewed in isolation. Rather, each merges with those that precede
and follow it -- shaped by the former and shaping the conditions of the
latter -- creating a continuous, fluctuating fabric of activity replete
with fleeting opportunities and unforeseen events. Success depends in
large part on the ability to adapt to a constantly changing situation.
It is physically impossible to sustain a high
tempo of activity indefinitely, although clearly there will be times when
it is advantageous to push men and equipment to the limit. Thus, the tempo
of war will fluctuate--from periods of intense activity to periods in
which activity is limited to information gathering, replenishment, or
redeployment. Darkness and weather can influence the tempo of war but
need not halt it. A competitive rhythm will develop between the opposing
wills, with each belligerent trying to influence and exploit tempo and
the continuous flow of events to suit his purposes.
DISORDER
In an environment of friction, uncertainty, and fluidity, war gravitates
naturally toward disorder. Like the other attributes of the environment
of war, disorder is an integral characteristic of war; we can never eliminate
it. In the heat of battle, plans will go awry, instructions and information
will be unclear and misinterpreted, communications will fail, and mistakes
and unforeseen events will be commonplace. It is precisely this natural
disorder which creates the conditions ripe for exploitation by an opportunistic
will.
Each encounter in war will usually tend to grow
increasingly disordered over time. As the situation changes continuously,
we are forced to improvise again and again until finally our actions have
little, if any, resemblance to the original scheme.
By historical standards, the modern battlefield is particularly disorderly.
While past battlefields could be described by linear formations and uninterrupted
linear fronts, we cannot think of today's battlefield in linear terms.
The range and lethality of modern weapons has increased dispersion between
units. In spite of communications technology, this dispersion strains
the limits of positive control. The natural result of dispersion is unoccupied
areas, gaps, and exposed flanks which can and will be exploited, blurring
the distinction between front and rear and friendly- and enemy-controlled
areas.
The occurrences of war will not unfold like clockwork.
Thus, we cannot hope to impose precise, positive control over events.
The best we can hope for is to impose a general framework of order on
the disorder, to prescribe the general flow of action rather than to try
to control each event.
If we are to win, we must be able to operate
in a disorderly environment. In fact, we must not only be able to fight
effectively in the face of disorder, we should seek to generate disorder
for our opponent and use it as a weapon against him.
THE HUMAN DIMENSION
Because war is a clash between opposing human wills, the human dimension
is central in war. It is the human dimension which infuses war with its
intangible moral factors. War is shaped by human nature and is subject
to the complexities, inconsistencies, and peculiarities which characterize
human behavior. Since war is an act of violence based on irreconcilable
disagreement, it will invariably inflame and be shaped by human emotions.
War is an extreme trial of moral and physical
strength and stamina. Any view of the nature of war would hardly be accurate
or complete without consideration of the effects of danger, fear, exhaustion,
and privation on the men who must do the fighting. However, these effects
vary greatly from case to case. Individuals and peoples react differently
to the stress of war; an act that may break the will of one enemy may
only serve to stiffen the resolve of another.
No degree of technological development or scientific
calculation will overcome the human dimension in war. Any doctrine which
attempts to reduce warfare to ratios of forces, weapons, and equipment
neglects the impact of the human will on the conduct of war and is therefore
inherently false.
VIOLENCE AND DANGER
War is among the greatest horrors known to mankind; it should never be
romanticized. The means of war is force, applied in the form of organized
violence. It is through the use of violence--or the credible threat of
violence, which requires the apparent willingness to use it--that we compel
our enemy to do our will. In either event, violence is an essential element
of war, and its immediate result is bloodshed, destruction, and suffering.
While the magnitude of violence may vary with the object and means of
war, the violent essence of war will never change. Any study of war that
neglects this characteristic is misleading and incomplete.
Since war is a violent enterprise, danger is
a fundamental characteristic of war. And since war is a human phenomenon,
fear--the human reaction to danger--has a significant impact on the conduct
of war. All men feel fear. Leadership must foster the courage to overcome
fear, both individually and within the unit. Courage is not the absence
of fear; rather, it is the strength to overcome fear.
Leaders must study fear, understand it, and be
prepared to cope with it. Like fear, courage takes many forms, from a
stoic courage born of reasoned calculation to a fierce courage born of
heightened emotion. Experience under fire generally increases courage,
as can realistic training by lessening the mystique of combat. Strong
leadership which earns the respect and trust of subordinates can limit
the effects of fear. Leaders should develop unit cohesion and esprit and
the self-confidence of individuals within the unit. In this environment
a Marine's unwillingness to violate the respect and trust of his peers
will overcome personal fear.
MORAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES
War is characterized by the interaction of both moral and physical forces.
The physical characteristics of war are generally easily seen, understood,
and measured: hardware, technology, physical objectives seized, force
ratios, losses of material or life, terrain lost or gained, prisoners
or materiel captured. The moral characteristics are less tangible. (The
term moral as used here is not restricted to ethics--although ethics are
certainly included--but pertains to those forces of psychological rather
than tangible nature, to include the mental aspects of war. Moral forces
are difficult to grasp and impossible to quantify. We cannot easily gauge
forces like national and military resolve, national or individual conscience,
emotion, fear, courage, morale, leadership, or esprit. Yet moral forces
exert a greater influence on the nature and outcome of war than do physical.
This is not to lessen the importance of physical forces, for the physical
forces in war can have a significant impact on the moral. For example,
the greatest effect of fires on the enemy is generally not the amount
of physical destruction they cause, but the effect of that physical destruction
on his moral strength.
Because the moral forces of war are difficult
to come to grips with, it is tempting to exclude them from our study of
war. However, any doctrine or theory of war that neglects these factors
ignores the greater part of the nature of war.
THE EVOLUTION OF WAR
War is both timeless and ever changing. While the basic nature of war
is constant, the means and methods we use evolve continuously. These changes
may be gradual in some cases and drastic in others. Drastic changes in
the nature of war are the result of developments that dramatically upset
the equilibrium of war, such as the rifled bore and the railroad.
One major catalyst of changes is the advancement of technology. As the
physical hardware of war improves through technological development, so
must the tactical, operational, and strategic usage of those means adapt
to the improved capabilities-- both to maximize our capabilities and to
counteract our enemy's.
We must stay abreast of this process of change,
for the belligerent who first exploits a development in the art and science
of war gains a significant, if not decisive, advantage. Conversely, if
we are ignorant of the changing face of war, we will find ourselves unequal
to its challenges.
ART AND SCIENCE OF WAR
From the discussion to this point, we can conclude that war demonstrates
characteristics of both art and science. Various aspects of war, particularly
its technical aspects, fall principally in the realm of science, which
we will describe as the methodical application of the empirical laws of
nature. The science of war includes those activities directly subject
to the laws of physics, chemistry, and like disciplines; for example,
the application of fires, the effects of weapons, and the rates and methods
of movement and resupply. However, these are among the components of war;
they do not describe the whole phenomenon. Owing to the vagaries of human
behavior and the countless other intangible factors which contribute to
it, there is far more to the conduct of war than can be explained by science.
The science of war stops short of the need for military judgment, the
impact of moral forces, the influence of chance, and other similar factors.
We thus conclude that the conduct of war is ultimately an art, an activity
of human creativity and intuition powered by the strength of the human
will. The art of war requires the intuitive ability to grasp the essence
of a unique battlefield situation, the creative ability to devise a practical
solution, and the strength of purpose to execute the act.
CONCLUSION
At first glance, war seems a rather simple clash of interests. But at closer examination, it takes shape as one of the most demanding and trying of man's endeavors. Fog, friction, and chaos are its natural habitat. Each episode is the unique product of the dynamic interaction of myriad moral and physical forces. While founded on the laws of science, war demands, ultimately, the intuition and creativity of art.
"The political object is the goal, war is the means of reaching it,
and the means can never be considered in isolation from their purposes."
--Carl von Clausewitz
"Invincibility lies in the defense; the possibility of victory in
the attack. One defends when his strength is inadequate; he attacks when
it is abundant."
--Sun Tzu
"Battles are won by slaughter and manoeuvre. The greater the general,
the more he contributes in manoeuvre, the less he demands in slaughter."
--Winston Churchill
Having arrived at a common view of the nature
of war, we proceed to develop from it a theory of war. Our theory of war
will in turn be the foundation for the way we prepare for and wage war.
WAR AS AN INSTRUMENT OF POLICY
War does not exist for its own sake. It is an extension of policy with
military force. The policy aim that is the motive for war must also be
the foremost determinant for the conduct of war. The single most important
thought to understand about our theory is that war must serve policy.
As the policy aims of war may vary from resistance against aggression
to complete annihilation of the enemy, so must the application of violence
vary in accordance with those aims. Of course, we may also have to adjust
our policy objectives to accommodate our means; we must not establish
goals outside our capabilities.
When the policy motive of war is intense, such
as the annihilation of an enemy, then policy and war's natural military
tendency toward destruction will coincide, and the war will appear more
military and less political in nature. Onthe other hand, the less intense
the policy motive, the more the military tendency toward destruction will
be at variance with that motive, and the more political and less military
the war will appear.
The aim in war is to achieve our will. The immediate
requirement is to overcome our enemy's ability to resist us, which is
a product of the physical means at his disposal and the strength of his
will. We must either eliminate his physical ability to resist or, short
of this, we must destroy his will to resist. In military terms, this means
the defeat of the enemy's fighting forces, but always in a manner and
to a degree consistent with the national policy objective.
MEANS IN WAR
At the national level, war involves the use of all the elements of national
power, including diplomacy, military force, economics, ideology, technology,
and culture. Our primary concern is with the use of military force as
an instrument of policy. But while we will focus on the use of military
force, we must not consider it in isolation from the other elements of
national power. The use of military force may take any number of forms,
from intense warfare with sophisticated weaponry to mere demonstrations.
The principal means for the application of military force is combat--violence
in the form of armed conflict between military or paramilitary forces.
THE SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT
Conflict can take a wide range of forms, constituting a spectrum which
reflects the magnitude of violence involved. At one end are those conflicts
of low intensity in which the application of military power is restrained
and selective. The other end of the spectrum represents conflicts of high
intensity, such as nuclear war. The place on the spectrum of a specific
conflict depends on several factors. Among them are policy objectives,
military means available, national will, and density of fighting forces
or combat power on the battlefield. In general, the greater the density,
the more intense the conflict. As a result, we may witness relatively
intense actions within a low- intensity conflict or relatively quiet sectors
or phases in an intense war.
Low-intensity conflicts are more probable than
high-intensity conflicts. Many nations simply do not possess the military
means to wage war at the high end of the spectrum. And, unless national
survival is at stake, nations are generally unwilling to accept the risks
associated with wars of high intensity. However, a conflict's intensity
may change over time. Belligerents may escalate the level of violence
if the original means do not achieve the desired results. Similarly, wars
may actually de-escalate over time; for example, after an initial pulse
of intense violence, the belligerents may continue to fight on a lesser
level, unable to sustain the initial level of intensity.
The Marine Corps, as the nation's force in readiness,
must have the versatility and flexibility to deal with military and paramilitary
situations across the entire spectrum of conflict. This is a greater challenge
than it may appear; conflicts of low intensity are not simply lesser forms
of high-intensity war. A modern military force capable of waging a war
of high intensity may find itself ill-prepared for a "small" war against
a poorly equipped guerilla force.
LEVELS OF WAR
War takes place simultaneously at several correlated levels, each with
differing ends, means, characteristics, and requirements.
Activities at the strategic level focus directly on national policy objectives.
Strategy applies to peace as well as war. Within strategy we distinguish
between national strategy, which coordinates and focuses all the components
of national power to attain the policy objective, and military strategy,
which is the application of military force to secure the policy objective.
Military strategy thus is subordinate to national strategy. Strategy can
be thought of as the art of winning wars. Strategy establishes goals in
theaters of war. It assigns forces, provides assets, and imposes conditions
on the use of force. Strategy derived from national policy must be clearly
understood to be the sole authoritative basis of all operations.
Activities at the tactical level of far focus
on the application of combat power to defeat an enemy in combat at a particular
time and place. Tactics can be thought of as the art and science of winning
engagements and battles. It includes the use of firepower and maneuver,
the integration of different arms, and the immediate exploitation of success
to defeat the enemy. Included within the tactical level of war is the
sustainment of forces during combat. The tactical level also includes
the technical application of combat power, which consists of those techniques
and procedures for accomplishing specific tasks within a tactical action.
These techniques and procedures deal primarily with actions designed to
enhance the effects of fires or reduce the effects of enemy fires--methods
such as the call for fire, techniques of fire, the technical operation
of weapons and equipment, or tactical movement techniques. There is a
certain overlap between tactics and techniques. We make the point only
to draw the distinction between tactics, which are the product of judgment
and creativity, and techniques and procedures, which are generally performed
by repetitive routine.
The Operational level of war links the strategic
and tactical levels. It is the use of tactical results to attain strategic
objectives. The operational level includes deciding when, where, and under
what conditions to engage the enemy in battle--and when, where, and under
what conditions to refuse battle--with reference to higher aims. Actions
at this level imply a broader dimension of time and space than do tactics.
As strategy deals with wars and tactics with battles and engagements,
the operational level of war is the art of winning campaigns. It means
are tactical results, and its end is the military strategic objective.
OFFENSE AND DEFENSE
Regardless of its type and nature of the level at which it is fought,
combat manifests itself in two different but complementary forms: the
offense and the defense. The offense and defense are24 neither mutually
exclusive nor clearly distinct; as we will see, each includes elements
of the other.
The offense contributes striking power. The offense
generally has its aim some positive gain; it is through the offense that
we seek to impose some design on the enemy. The defense, on the other
hand, contributes resisting power, the ability to preserve and protect
oneself. Thus, the defense generally has a negative aim, that of resisting
the enemy's will.
The defense is inherently the stronger form of
combat. Were this not the case, there would be no reason ever to assume
the defensive. The offense, with its positive aim, would always be preferable.
But in fact, if we are weaker than our enemy, we assume the defensive
to compensate for our weakness. Similarly, if we are to mount an offensive
to impose our will, we must develop enough force to overcome the inherent
superiority of the enemy's defense.
At least one party to a conflict must have an
offensive intention, for without the desire to impose upon the other there
would be no conflict. Similarly, the second party must at least possess
a defensive desire, for without the willingness to resist there again
would be no conflict. We can imagine a conflict in which both parties
possess an offensive intention. But after the initial clash one of them
must assume a defensive posture out of weakness until able to resume the
offensive.
This leads us to the conclusion that while the
defense is the stronger form of combat, the offense is the preferred form,
for only through the offense can we truly pursue a positive aim. We resort
to the defensive when weakness compels.
While opposing forms, the offense and defense
are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they cannot exist separately. For
example, the defense cannot be purely passive resistance. An effective
defense must assume an offensive character, striking at the enemy at the
moment of his greatest vulnerability. It is "not a simple shield, but
a shield made up of well-directed blows." The truly decisive element of
the defense is the counterattack. Thus, the offense is an integral component
of the concept of the defense.
Similarly, the defense is an essential component
of the offense. The offense cannot sustain itself indefinitely. At some
times and places, it becomes necessary to halt the offense to replenish,
and the defense automatically takes over. Furthermore, the requirement
to concentrate forces at the focus of effort for the offense often necessitates
assuming the defensive elsewhere. Therefore, out of necessity we must
include defensive considerations as part of our concept of the offense.
This brings us to the concept of the culminating
point, without which our understanding of the relationship between the
offense and defense would be incomplete. Not only can the offense not
sustain itself indefinitely, it generally grows weaker as it advances.
Certain moral factors, such as morale or boldness, may increase with a
successful attack, but these generally cannot compensate for the physical
losses involved in sustaining an advance in the face of resistance. We
advance at a cost--lives, fuel, ammunition, physical and sometimes moral
strength--and so the attack becomes weaker over time. Eventually, the
superiority that allowed us to attack and forced our enemy to defend in
the first place dissipates and the balance tips in favor of our enemy.
We have reached the culminating point, at which we can no longer sustain
the attack and must revert to the defense. It is precisely at this point
that the defensive element of the offense is most vulnerable to the offensive
element of the defense, the counterattack.
This relationship between offense and defense
exists simultaneously at the various levels of war. For example, we may
employ a tactical defense as part of an offensive campaign, availing ourselves
of the advantages of the defense tactically while pursuing an operational
offensive aim.
We conclude that there exists no clear division
between the offense and defense. Our theory of war should not attempt
to impose one artificially. The offense and defense exist simultaneously
as necessary components of each other, and the transition from one to
the other is fluid and continuous.
STYLES OF WARFARE
Just as there are two basic forms of combat, there are two essential
components: fire and movement. Of all the countless activities in combat,
we can distill them to these.
It would seem in theory that fire and movement
represent opposite ends of a spectrum. But in reality, one cannot exist
without the other, for fire and movement are complementary and mutually
dependent. It is movement that allows us to bring our fires to bear on
the enemy just as it is the protection of fires that allows us to move
in the face of the enemy. It is through movement that we exploit the effects
of fires while it is the destructive force of fires that adds menace to
our movements.
Although all warfare uses both fire and movement,
these components provide the foundation for two distinct styles of warfare:
an attrition style, based on firepower, and a maneuver style, based on
movement. The different styles can exist simultaneously at different levels.
For example, the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific during the Second
World War was a maneuver campaign comprising a series of attrition battles.
Warfare by attrition seeks victory through the
cumulative destruction of the enemy's material assets by superior firepower
and technology. An attritionist sees the enemy as targets to be engaged
and destroyed systematically. Thus, the focus is on efficiency, leading
to a methodical, almost scientific, approach to war. With the emphasis
on the efficient application of massed, accurate fires, movement tends
to be ponderous and tempo relatively unimportant. The attritionist gauges
progress in quantitative terms: battle damage assessments, "body counts,"
and terrain captured. He seeks battle under any and all conditions, pitting
strength against strength to exact the greatest toll from his enemy. Results
are generally proportionate to efforts; greater expenditures net greater
results--that is, greater attrition. The desire for volume and accuracy
of fire tends to lead toward centralized control, just as the emphasis
on efficiency tends to lead to an inward focus on procedures and techniques.
Success through attrition demands the willingness and ability also to
withstand attrition, because warfare by attrition is costly. The greatest
necessity for success is numerical superiority, and at the national level
war becomes as much an industrial as a military problem. Victory does
not depend so much on military competence as on sheer superiority of numbers
in men and equipment.
In contrast, warfare by maneuver stems from a
desire to circumvent a problem and attack it from a position of advantage
rather than meet it straight on. The goal is the application of strength
against selected enemy weakness. By definition, maneuver relies on speed
and surprise, for without either we cannot concentrate strength against
enemy weakness. Tempo is itself a weapon--often the most important. The
need for speed in turn requires decentralized control. While attrition
operates principally in the physical realm of war, the results of maneuver
are both physical and moral. The object of maneuver is not so much to
destroy physically as it is to shatter the enemy's cohesion, organization,
command, and psychological balance. Successful
maneuver depends on the ability to identify and exploit enemy weakness,
not simply on the expenditure of superior might. To win by maneuver, we
cannot substitute numbers for skill. Maneuver thus makes a greater demand
on military judgment. Potential success by maneuver--unlike attrition--is
often disproportionate to the effort made. But for exactly the same reasons,
maneuver incompetently applied carries with it a greater chance for catastrophic
failure, while attrition is inherently less risky.
Because we have long enjoyed vast numerical and
technological superiority, the United States has traditionally waged war
by attrition. However, Marine Corps doctrine today is based on warfare
by maneuver, as we will see in the fourth chapter, "The Conduct of War."
COMBAT POWER
Combat power is the total destructive force we can bring to bear on our
enemy at a given time. Some factors in combat power are quite tangible
and easily measured, such as superior numbers, which Clausewitz called
"the most common element in victory." Some may be less easily measured,
such as the effects of maneuver, tempo, or surprise; the advantages established
by geography or climate; the relative strengths of the offense and defense;
or the relative merits of striking the enemy in the front, flanks, or
rear. And some may be wholly intangible, such as morale, fighting spirit,
perseverance, or the effects of leadership.
It is not our intent to try to list or categorize
all the various components of combat power, to index their relative values,
or to describe their combinations and variations; each combination is
unique and temporary. Nor is it even desirable to be able to do so, since
this would lead us to a formulistic approach to war.
CONCENTRATION AND SPEED
Of all the consistent patterns we can discern in war, there are two concepts
of such significance and universality that we can advance them as principles:
concentration and speed.
Concentration is the convergence of effort in
time and space. It is the means by which we develop superiority at the
decisive time and place. concentration does not apply only to combat forces.
It applies equally to all available resources: fires, aviation, the intelligence
effort, logistics, and all other forms of combat support and combat service
support. Similarly, concentration does not apply only to the conduct of
war, but also to the preparation for war.
Effective concentration may achieve decisive
local superiority for a numerically inferior force. The willingness to
concentrate at the decisive place and time necessitates strict economy
and the acceptance of risk elsewhere and at other times. To devote means
to unnecessary efforts or excessive means to necessary secondary efforts
violates the principle of concentration and is counterproductive to the
true objective.
Since war is fluid and opportunities fleeting,
concentration applies to time as well as to space. We must concentrate
not only at the decisive location, but also at the decisive moment. Furthermore,
physical concentration--massing--makes us vulnerable to enemy fires, necessitating
dispersion. Thus, a pattern develops: disperse, concentrate, disperse
again.
Speed is rapidity of action. Like concentration, speed applies to both
time and space. And, like concentration, it is relative speed that matters.
Speed over time is tempo--the consistent ability to operate fast Speed
over distance, or space, is velocity- -the ability to move fast. Both
forms are genuine sources of combat power. In other words, speed is a
weapon. Superior speed allows us to seize the initiative and dictate the
terms of combat, forcing the enemy to react to us. Speed provides security.
It is a prerequisite for maneuver and for surprise. Moreover, speed is
necessary in order to concentrate superior strength at the decisive time
and place.
Since it is relative speed that matters, it follows
that we should take all measures to improve our own tempo and velocity
while degrading our enemy's. However, experience shows that we cannot
sustain a high rate of velocity or tempo indefinitely. As a result, another
pattern develops: fast, slow, fast again. A competitive rhythm develops
in combat, with each belligerent trying to generate speed when it is to
his advantage.
The combination of concentration and speed is
momentum. Momentum generates impetus. It adds "punch" or "shock effect"
to our actions. It follows that we should strike the decisive blow with
the greatest possible combination of concentration and speed.
SURPRISE AND BOLDNESS
We must now acknowledge two additional considerations
that are significant as multipliers of combat power: surprise and boldness.
By surprise we mean striking the enemy at a time
or place or in a manner for which he is unprepared. It is not essential
that we take the enemy unaware, but only that he become aware too late
to react effectively. The desire for surprise is "more or less basic to
all operations, for without it superiority at the decisive point is hardly
conceivable." But, while a necessary condition for superiority, surprise
is also a genuine multiplier of strength in its own right because of its
psychological effect. Surprise can decisively affect the outcome of combat
far beyond the physical means at hand.
Surprise is the paralysis, if only partial and
temporary, of the enemy's ability to resist. The advantage gained by surprise
depends on the degree of surprise and the enemy's ability to adjust and
recover. Surprise is based on speed, secrecy, and deception. It means
doing the unexpected thing, which in turn normally means doing the more
difficult thing in hopes that the enemy will not expect it. In fact, this
is the genesis of maneuver- -to circumvent the enemy's strength to strike
him where he is not prepared. Purposely choosing the more difficult course
because it is less expected necessarily means sacrificing efficiency to
some degree. The question is" Does the anticipated advantage gained compensate
for the certain loss of efficiency that must be incurred?
While the element of surprise is often of decisive
importance, we must realize that it is difficult to achieve and easy to
lose. Its advantages are only temporary and must be quickly exploited.
Friction, a dominant attribute of war, is the constant enemy of surprise.
We must also recognize that while surprise is always desirable, the ability
to achieve it does not depend solely on our own efforts. It depends at
least as much on our enemy's susceptibility to surprise--his expectations
and preparedness. Our ability to achieve surprise thus rests on our ability
to appreciate and then dislocate our enemy's expectations. Therefore,
while surprise can be decisive, it is a mistake to depend on it alone
for the margin of victory.
Boldness is a multiplier of combat power in much
the same way that surprise is, for "in what other field of human activity
is boldness more at home than in war?" Boldness "must be granted a certain
power over and above successful calculations involving space, time, and
magnitude of forces, for wherever it is superior, it will take advantage
of its opponent's weakness. In other words, it is a genuinely creative
force." Boldness is superior to timidity in every instance and is at a
disadvantage only in the face of nervy, calculating patience which allows
the enemy to commit himself irrevocably before striking--a form of boldness
in its own right. Boldness must be tempered with judgment lest it border
on recklessness. But this does not diminish its significance.
EXPLOITING VULNERABILITY AND OPPORTUNITY
It is not enough simply to generate superior combat power. We can easily
conceive of superior combat power dissipated over several unrelated efforts
or concentrated on some indecisive object. To win, we must concentrate
combat power toward a decisive aim.
We obviously stand a better chance of success
by concentrating strength against enemy weakness rather than against strength.
So we seek to strike the enemy where, when, and how he is most vulnerable.
This means that we should generally avoid his front, where his attention
is focused and he is strongest, and seek out his flanks and rear, where
he does not expect us and where we can also cause the greatest psychological
damage. We should also strike at that moment in time when he is most vulnerable.
Of all the vulnerabilities we might choose to
exploit, some are more critical to the enemy than others. It follows that
the most effective way to defeat our enemy is to destroy that which is
most critical to him. We should focus our efforts on the one thing which,
if eliminated, will do the most decisive damage to his ability to resist
us. By taking this from him we defeat him outright or at least weaken
him severely.
Therefore,we should focus our efforts against
a critical enemy vulnerability. Obviously, the more critical and vulnerable,
the better. But this is by no means an easy decision, since the most critical
object may not be the most vulnerable. In selecting an aim, we we thus
recognize the need for sound military judgment to compare the degree of
criticality with the degree of vulnerability and to balance both against
our own capabilities. Reduced to its simplest terms, we should strike
our enemy where and when we can hurt him most.
This concept applies equally to the conflict
as a whole--the war--and to any episode of the war--any campaign, battle,
or engagement. From this we can conclude that the concept applies equally
to the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. At the highest level
a critical vulnerability is likely to be some intangible condition, such
as popular opinion or a shaky alliance between two countries, although
it may also be some essential war resource or a key city. At the lower
levels a critical vulnerability is more likely to take on a physical nature,
such as an exposed flank, a chokepoint along the enemy's line of operations,
a logistics dump, a gap in enemy dispositions, or even the weak side armor
of a tank.
In reality, our enemy's most critical vulnerability
will rarely be obvious, particularly at the lower levels. We may have
to adopt the tactic of exploiting any and all vulnerabilities until we
uncover a decisive opportunity.
This leads us to a corollary thought: exploiting
opportunity. Decisive results in war are rarely the direct result of an
initial, deliberate action. Rather, the initial action creates the conditions
for subsequent actions which develop from it. As the opposing wills interact,
they create various, fleeting opportunities for either foe. Such opportunities
are often born of the disorder that is natural in war. They may be the
result of our own actions, enemy mistakes, or even chance. By exploiting
opportunities, we create in increasing numbers more opportunities for
exploitation. It is often the ability and the willingness to ruthlessly
exploit these opportunities that generate decisive results. The ability
to take advantage of opportunity is a function of speed, flexibility,
boldness, and initiative.
CONCLUSION
The theory of war we have described will provide the foundation for the discussion of the conduct of war in the final chapter. The warfighting doctrine which we derive from our theory is one based on maneuver. This represents a change since, with a few notable exceptions--Stonewall Jackson in the Valley, Patton in Europe, MacArthur at Inchon--the American way of war traditionally has been one of attrition. This style of warfare generally has worked for us because, with our allies, we have enjoyed vast numerical and technological superiority. But we can no longer presume such a luxury. In fact, an expeditionary force in particular must be prepared to win quickly, with minimal casualties and limited external support, against a physical superior foe. This requirement mandates a doctrine of maneuver warfare.
Chapter 3. PREPARING FOR WAR
"The essential thing is action. Action has three stages: the decision
born of thought, the order or preparation for execution, and the execution
itself. All three stages are governed by the will. The will is rooted
in character, and for the man of action character is of more critical
importance than intellect. Intellect without will is worthless, will without
intellect is dangerous."
--Hans von Seekt
"The best form of welfare for the troops is first-class training,
for this saves unnecessary casualties"
--Erwin Rommel
"Untutored courage (is) useless in the face of educated bullets."
--George S. Patton, Jr.
During times of peace the most important
task of any military is to prepare for war. As the nation's rapid-response
force, the Marine Corps must maintain itself ready for immediate employment
in any clime and place and in any type of conflict. All peacetime activities
should focus on achieving combat readiness. This implies a high level
of training, flexibility in organization and equipment, qualified professional
leadership, and a cohesive doctrine.
PLANNING
Planning plays as important a role in the preparation for war as in the
conduct of war. The key to any plan is a clearly defined objective, in
this case a required level of readiness. We must identify that level of
readiness and plan a campaign to reach it. A campaign is a progressive
sequence of attainable goals to gain the objective within a specified
time.
The plan must focus all the efforts of the peacetime
Marine Corps, including training, education, doctrine, organization, and
equipment acquisition. Unity of effort is as important during the preparation
for war as it is during the conduct of war. This systematic process of
identifying the objective and planning a course to gain it applies to
all levels.
ORGANIZATION
The Fleet Marine Forces must be organized to provide forward deployed
or rapidly-deployable forces capable of mounting expeditionary operations
in any environment. This means that, in addition to maintaining their
unique amphibious capability, the Fleet Marine Forces must maintain a
capability to deploy by whatever means is appropriate to the situation.
The active Fleet Marine Forces must be capable
of responding immediately to most types of conflict. Missions in sustained
high-intensity warfare will require augmentation from the Reserve establishment.
For operations and training, Fleet Marine Forces--active
and Reserve--will be formed into Marine Air-Ground Task Forces (MAGTFs).
MAGTFs are task organizations consisting of ground, aviation, combat service
support, and command components. They have no standard structure, but
rather are constituted as appropriate for the specific situation. The
MAGTF provides a single commander the optimum combined-arms force for
the situation he faces. As the situation changes, it may of course be
necessary to restructure the MAGTF.
To the greatest extent practicable, Fleet Marine
Forces must be organized for warfighting and then adapted for peacetime
rather than vice versa. Tables of organization of Fleet Marine Force units
should reflect the two central requirements of deployability and the ability
to task- organize according to specific situations. Units should be organized
according to type only to the extent dictated by training, administrative,
and logistic requirements. Further, we should strealine our headquarters
organizations and staffs to eliminate bureaucratic delays in order to
add tempo.
Commanders should establish habitual relationships
between supported and supporting units to develop operational familiarity
among those units. This does not preclude nonstandard relationships when
required by the situation.
DOCTRINE
Doctrine is a teaching advanced as the fundamental beliefs of the Marine
Corps on the subject of war, from its nature and theory to its preparation
and conduct Doctrine establishes a particular way of thinking about war
and a way of fighting, a philosophy for leading Marines in combat, a mandate
for professionalism, and a common language. In short, it establishes the
way we practice our profession. In this manner, doctrine provides the
basis for harmonious actions and mutual understanding.
Marine Corps doctrine is made official by the
Commandant and is established in this manual. Our doctrine does not consist
of procedures to be applied in specific situations so much as it establishes
general guidance that requires judgment in application. Therefore, while
authoritative, doctrine is not prescriptive.
LEADERSHIP
Marine Corps doctrine demands professional competence among its leaders.
As military professionals charged with the defense of the nation, Marine
leaders must be true experts in the conduct of war. They must be men of
action and of intellect both, skilled at "getting things done" while at
the same time conversant in the military art. Resolute and self-reliant
in their decisions, they must also be energetic and insistent in execution.
The military profession is a thinking profession.
Officers particularly are expected to be students of the art and science
of war at all levels--tactical, operational, and strategic--with a solid
foundation in military theory and a knowledge of military history and
the timeless lessons to be gained from it.
Leaders must have a strong sense of the great
responsibility of their office; the resources they will expend in war
are human lives.
The Marine Corps' style of warfare requires intelligent
leaders with a penchant for boldness and initiative down to the lowest
levels. Boldness is an essential moral trait in a leader, for it generates
combat power beyond the physical means at hand. Initiative, the willingness
to act on one's own judgment, is a prerequisite for boldness. These traits
carried to excess can lead to rashness, but we must realize that errors
by junior leaders stemming from overboldness are a necessary part of learning.
We should deal with such errors leniently; there must be no "zero defects"
mentality. Not only must we not stifle boldness or initiative, we must
continue to encourage both traits in spite of mistakes. On the other hand,
we should deal severely with errors of inaction or timidity. We will not
accept lack of orders as justification for inaction; it is each Marine's
duty to take initiative as the situation demands.
Consequently, trust is an essential trait among
leaders--trust by seniors in the abilities of their subordinates and by
juniors in the competence and support of their seniors. Trust must be
earned, and actions which undermine trust must meet with strict censure.
Trust is a product of confidence and familiarity. Confidence among comrades
results from demonstrated professional skill. Familiarity results from
shared experience and a common professional philosophy.
Relations among all leaders--from corporal to
general--should be based on honesty and frankness, regardless of disparity
between grades. Until a commander has reached and stated a decision, each
subordinate should consider it his duty to provide his honest, professional
opinion--even though it may be in disagreement with his senior's. However,
once the decision has been reached, the junior then must support it as
if it were his own. Seniors must encourage candor among subordinates and
must not hide behind their rank insignia. Ready compliance for the purpose
of personal advancement--the behavior of "yes-men"-- will not be tolerated.
TRAINING
The purpose of all training is to develop forces that can win in combat.
Training is the key to combat effectiveness and therefore is the focus
of effort of a peacetime military. However, training should not stop with
the commencement of war; training must continue during war to adapt to
the lessons of combat.
All officers and enlisted Marines undergo similar
entry-level training which is, in effect, a socialization process. This
training provides all Marines a common experience, a proud heritage, a
set of values, and a common bond of comradeship. It is the essential first
step in the making of a Marine.
Basic individual skills are an essential foundation
for combat effectiveness and must receive heavy emphasis. All Marines,
regardless of occupational specialty, will be trained in basic combat
skills. At the same time, unit skills are extremely important. They are
not simply an accumulation of individual skills; adequacy in individual
skills does not automatically mean unit skills are satisfactory.
Commanders at each echelon must allot subordinates
sufficient time and freedom to conduct the training necessary to achieve
proficiency at their levels. They must ensure that higher-level demands
do not deny subordinates adequate opportunities for autonomous training
and that oversupervision does not prevent subordinate commanders from
training their units as they believe appropriate.
In order to develop initiative among junior leaders,
the conduct of training--like combat--should be decentralized. Senior
commanders influence training by establishing goals and standards, communicating
the intent of training, and establishing a focus of effort for training.
As a rule, they should refrain from dictating how the training will be
accomplished.
Training programs should reflect practical, challenging,
and progressive goals beginning with individual and small-unit skills
and culminating in a fully combined-arms MAGTF.
In general, the organization for combat should
also be the organization for training. That is, units--including MAGTFs--should
train with the full complement of assigned, reinforcing, and supporting
forces they require in combat.
Collective training consists of drills and exercises. Drills are a form
of small unit training which stress proficiency by progressive repetition
of tasks. Drills are an effective method for developing standardized techniques
and procedures that must be performed repeatedly without variation to
ensure speed and coordination, such as gun drill or immediate actions.
In contrast, exercises are designed to train units and individuals in
tactics under simulated combat conditions. Exercises should approximate
the conditions of battle as much as possible; that is, they should introduce
friction in the form of uncertainty, stress, disorder, and opposing wills.
This last characteristic is most important; only in opposed, free-play
exercises can we practice the art of war. Dictated or "canned" scenarios
eliminate the element of independent, opposing wills that is the essence
of combat.
Critiques are an important part of training because
critical self-analysis, even after success, is essential to improvement.
Their purpose is to draw out the lessons of training. As a result, we
should conduct critiques immediately after completing the training, before
the memory of the events has faded. Critiques should be held in an atmosphere
of open and frank dialogue in which all hands are encouraged to contribute.
We learn as much from mistakes as from things done well, so we must be
willing to admit and discuss them. Of course, a subordinate's willingness
to admit mistakes depends on the commander's willingness to tolerate them.
Because we recognize that no two situations in war are the same, our critiques
should focus not so much on the actions we took as on why we took those
actions and why they brought the results they did.
PROFESSIONAL MILITARY EDUCATION
Professional military education is designed to develop creative, thinking
leaders. A leader's career, from the initial stages of leadership training,
should be viewed as a continuous, progressive process of development.
At each stage of his career, he should be preparing for the subsequent
stage.
Whether he is an officer or enlisted, the early
stages of a leader's career are, in effect, his apprenticeship. While
receiving a foundation in professional theory and concepts that will serve
him throughout his career, the leader focuses on understanding the requirements
and learning and applying the procedures and techniques associated with
his field. This is when he learns his trade as an aviation, infantryman,
artilleryman, or logistician. As he progresses, the leader should have
mastered the requirements of his apprenticeship and should understand
the interrelationship of the techniques and procedures within his field.
His goal is to become an expert in the tactical level of war.
As an officer continues to develop, he should
understand the interrelationship between his field and all the other fields
within the Marine Corps. He should be an expert in tactics and techniques
and should understand amphibious warfare and combined arms. He should
be studying the operational level of war. At the senior levels he should
be fully capable of articulating, applying, and integrating MAGTF warfighting
capabilities in a joint and combined environment and should be an expert
in the art of war at all levels.
The responsibility for implementing professional
military education in the Marine Corps is three-tiered: it resides not
only with the education establishment, but also with the commander and
the individual.
The education establishment consists of those
schools-- administered by the Marine Corps, subordinate commands, or outside
agencies--established to provide formal education in the art and science
of war. In all officer education particularly, schools should focus on
developing a talent for military judgment, not on imparting knowledge
through rote learning. Study conducted by the education establishment
can neither provide complete career training for an individual nor reach
all individuals. Rather, it builds upon the base provided by commanders
and by individual study.
All commanders should consider the professional
development of their subordinates a principal responsibility of command.
Commanders should foster a personal teacher-student relationship with
their subordinates. Commanders are expected to conduct a continuing professional
education program for their subordinates which includes developing military
judgment and decision making and teaches general professional subjects
and specific technical subjects pertinent to occupational specialties.
Useful tools for general professional development include supervised reading
programs, map exercises, war games, battle studies, and terrain studies.
Commanders should see the development of their subordinates as a direct
reflection on themselves.
Finally, every Marine has a basic responsibility
to study the profession of arms on his own. A leader without either interest
in or knowledge of the history and theory of warfare--the intellectual
content of his profession--is a leader in appearance only. Self-study
in the art and science of war is at least equal in importance--and should
receive at least equal time--to maintaining physical condition. This is
particularly true among officers' after all, an officer's principal weapon
is his mind.
EQUIPPING
Equipment should be easy to operate and maintain, reliable, and interoperable
with other equipment. It should require minimal specialized operator training.
Further, equipment should be designed so that its usage is consistent
with established doctrine and tactics. Primary considerations are strategic
and tactical lift--the Marine Corps' reliance on Navy shipping for strategic
mobility and on helicopters and vertical/short takeoff and landing aircraft
for tactical mobility from ship to shore and during operations ashore.
Equipment that permits overcontrol of units in
battle is in conflict with the Marine Corps' philosophy of command and
is not justifiable.
In order to minimize research and development
costs and fielding time, the Marine Corps will exploit existing capabilities--"off-the-shelf"
technology--to the greatest extent possible.
Acquisition should be a complementary, two-way
process. Especially for the long term, the process must identify combat
requirements and develop equipment to satisfy these requirements. We should
base these requirements on an analysis of critical enemy vulnerabilities
and develop equipment specifically to exploit those vulnerabilities. At
the same time, the process should not overlook existing equipment of obvious
usefulness.
Equipment is useful only if it increases combat
effectiveness. Any piece of equipment requires support: operator training,
maintenance, power sources or fuel, and transport. The anticipated enhancements
of capabilities must justify these support requirements and the employment
of the equipment must take these requirements into account.
As much as possible, employment techniques and procedures should be developed
concurrently with equipment to minimize delays between the fielding of
the equipment and its usefulness to the operating forces. For the same
reason, initial operator training should also precede equipment fielding.
We must guard against overreliance on technology.
Technology can enhance the ways and means of war by improving man's ability
to wage it, but technology cannot and should not attempt to eliminate
man from the process of waging war. Better equipment is not the cure for
all ills; doctrinal and tactical solutions to combat deficiencies must
also be sought. Any advantages gained by technological advancements are
only temporary, for man will always find a countermeasure, tactical or
itself technological, which will lessen the impact of the technology.
Additionally, we must not become so dependent on equipment that we can
no longer function effectively when the equipment becomes inoperable.
CONCLUSION
There are two basic military functions: waging war and preparing for war. Any military activities that do not contribute to the conduct of a present war are justifiable only if they contribute to preparedness for a possible future one. But, clearly, we cannot afford to separate conduct and preparation. They must be intimately related because failure in preparation leads to disaster on the battlefield.
Chapter 4. THE CONDUCT OF WAR
"Now an army may be likened to water, for just as flowing water avoids
the heights and hastens to the lowlands, so an army avoids strength and
strikes weakness."
--Sun Tzu
"Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy's unpreparedness;
travel by unexpected routes and strike him where he has taken no precautions."
--Sun Tzu
"Many years ago, as a cadet hoping some day to be an officer, I was
poring over the `Principles of war,' listed in the old Field Service Regulations,
when the Sergeant-Major came up to me. He surveyed me with kindly amusement.
`Don't bother your head about all them things, me lad,' he said, `There's
only one principle of war and that's this. His the other fellow, as quick
as you can, and as hard as you can, where it hurts him most, when he ain't
lookin'!'"
--Sir William Slim
The sole justification for the United States
Marine Corps is to secure or protect national policy objectives by military
force when peaceful means alone cannot. How the Marine Corps proposes
to accomplish this mission is the product of our understanding of the
nature and the theory of war and must be the guiding force behind our
preparation for war.
THE CHALLENGE
The challenge is to identify and adopt a concept of warfighting consistent
with our understanding of the nature and theory of war and the realities
of the modern battlefield. What exactly does this require? It requires
a concept of warfighting that will function effectively in an uncertain,
chaotic, and fluid environment--in fact, one that will exploit these conditions
to advantage. It requires a concept that, recognizing the time-competitive
rhythm of war, generates and exploits superior tempo and velocity. It
requires a concept that is consistently effective across the full spectrum
of conflict, because we cannot attempt to change our basic doctrine from
situation to situation and expect to be proficient. It requires a concept
which recognizes and exploits the fleeting opportunities which naturally
occur in war.
It requires a concept which takes into account
the moral as well as the physical forces of war, because we have already
concluded that moral forces form the greater part of war. It requires
a concept with which we can succeed against a numerically superior foe,
because we can no longer presume a numerical advantage. And, especially
in expeditionary situations in which public support for military action
may be tepid and short-lived, it requires a concept with which we can
win quickly against a larger foe on his home soil, with minimal casualties
and limited external support.
MANEUVER WARFARE
The Marine Corps concept for winning under these conditions is a warfighting
doctrine based on rapid, flexible, and opportunistic maneuver. But in
order to fully appreciate what we mean by maneuver we need to clarify
the term. The traditional understanding of maneuver is a spatial one;
that is, we maneuver in space to gain a positional advantage. However,
in order to maximize the usefulness of maneuver, we must consider maneuver
in time as well; that is, we generate a faster operational tempo than
the enemy to gain a temporal advantage. It is through maneuver in both
dimensions that an inferior force can achieve decisive superiority at
the necessary time and place.
Maneuver warfare is a warfighting philosophy
that seeks to shatter the enemy's cohesion through a series of rapid,
violent, and unexpected actions which create a turbulent and rapidly deteriorating
situation with which he cannot cope.
From this definition we see that the aim in maneuver warfare is to render
the enemy incapable of resisting by shattering his moral and physical
cohesion--his ability to fight as an effective, coordinated whole--rather
than to destroy him physically through incremental attrition, which is
generally more costly and time-consuming. Ideally, the components of his
physical strength that remain are irrelevant because we have paralyzed
his ability to use them effectively. Even if an outmaneuvered enemy continues
to fight as individuals or small units, we can destroy the remnants with
relative ease because we have eliminated his ability to fight effectively
as a force.
This is not to imply that firepower is unimportant.
On the contrary, the suppressive effects of firepower are essential to
our ability to maneuver. Nor do we means to imply that we will pass up
the opportunity to physically destroy the enemy. We will concentrate fires
and forces at decisive points to destroy enemy elements when the opportunity
presents itself and when it fits our larger purposes. But the aim is not
an unfocused application of firepower for the purpose of incrementally
reducing the enemy's physical strength. Rather, it is the selective application
of firepower in support of maneuver to contribute to the enemy's shock
and moral disruption. The greatest value of firepower is not physical
destruction--the cumulative effects of which are felt only slowly--but
the moral dislocation it causes.
If the aim of maneuver warfare is to shatter
the enemy's cohesion, the immediate object toward that end is to create
a situation in which he cannot function. By our actions, we seek to pose
menacing dilemmas in which events happen unexpectedly and faster than
the enemy can keep up with them. The enemy must be made to see his situation
not only as deteriorating, but deteriorating at an ever-increasing rate.
The ultimate goal is panic and paralysis, an enemy who has lost the ability
to resist.
Inherent in maneuver warfare is the need for
speed to seize the initiative, dictate the terms of combat, and keep the
enemy off balance, thereby increasing his friction. Through the use of
greater tempo and velocity, we seek to establish a pace that the enemy
cannot maintain so that with each action his reactions are increasingly
late--until eventually he is overcome by events.
Also inherent is the need for violence, not so much as a source of physical
attrition but as a source of moral dislocation. Toward this end, we concentrate
strength against critical enemy vulnerabilities, striking quickly and
boldly where, when, and how it will cause the greatest damage to our enemy's
ability to fight. Once gained or found, any advantage must be pressed
relentlessly and unhesitatingly. We must be ruthlessly opportunistic,
actively seeking out signs of weakness, against which we will direct all
available combat power. And when the decisive opportunity arrives, we
must exploit it fully and aggressively, committing every ounce of combat
power we can muster and pushing ourselves to the limits of exhaustion.
The final weapon in our arsenal is surprise,
the combat value of which we have already recognized. By studying our
enemy we will attempt to appreciate his perceptions. Through deception
we will try to shape his expectations. Then we will dislocate them by
striking at an unexpected time and place. In order to appear unpredictable,
we must avoid set rules and patterns, which inhibit imagination and initiative.
In order to appear ambiguous and threatening, we should operate on axes
that offer several courses of action, keeping the enemy unclear as to
which we will choose.
PHILOSOPHY OF COMMAND
It is essential that our philosophy of command support the way we fight.
First and foremost, in order to generate the tempo of operations we desire
and to best cope with the uncertainty, disorder, and fluidity of combat,
command must be decentralized. That is, subordinate commanders must make
decisions on their own initiative, based on their understanding of their
senior's intent, rather than passing information up the chain of command
and waiting for the decision to be passed down. Further, a competent subordinate
commander who is at the point of decision will naturally have a better
appreciation for the true situation than a senior some distance removed.
Individual initiative and responsibility are of paramount importance.
The principal means by which we implement decentralized control is through
the use of mission tactics, which we will discuss in detail later.
Second, since we have concluded that war is a
human enterprise and no amount of technology can reduce the human dimension,
our philosophy of command must be based on human characteristics rather
than on equipment or procedures. Communications equipment and command
and staff procedures can enhance our ability to command, but they must
not be used to replace the human element of command. Our philosophy must
not only accommodate but must exploit human traits such as boldness, initiative,
personality, strength of will, and imagination.
Our philosophy of command must also exploit the
human ability to communicate implicitly. We believe that implicit communication--to
communicate through mutual understanding, using a minimum of key, well-understood
phrases or even anticipating each other's thoughts--is a faster, more
effective way to communicate than through the use of detailed, explicit
instructions. We develop this ability through familiarity and trust, which
are based on a shared philosophy and shared experience.
This concept has several practical implications.
First, we should establish long-term working relationships to develop
the necessary familiarity and trust. Second, key people--"actuals"--should
talk directly to one another when possible, rather than through communicators
or messengers. Third, we should communicate orally when possible, because
we communicate also in how we talk; our inflections and tone of voice.
And fourth, we should communicate in person when possible, because we
communicate also through our gestures and bearing.
A commander should command from well forward.
This allows him to see and sense firsthand the ebb and flow of combat,
to gain an intuitive appreciation for the situation which he cannot obtain
from reports. It allows him to exert his personal influence at decisive
points during the action. It also allows him to locate himself closer
to the events that will influence the situation so that he can observe
them directly and circumvent the delays and inaccuracies that result from
passing information up the chain of command.
Finally, we recognize the importance of personal
leadership. Only by his physical presence--by demonstrating the willingness
to share danger and privation--can the commander fully gain the trust
and confidence of his subordinates.
We must remember that command from the front does not equate to oversupervision
of subordinates.
As part of our philosophy of command we must
recognize that war is inherently disorderly, uncertain, dynamic, and dominated
by friction. Moreover, maneuver warfare, with its emphasis on speed and
initiative, is by nature a particularly disorderly style of war. The conditions
ripe for exploitation are normally also very disorderly. For commanders
to try to gain certainty as a basis for actions, maintain positive control
of events at all times, or shape events to fit their plans is to deny
the very nature of war. We must therefore be prepared to cope--even better,
to thrive--in an environment of chaos, uncertainty, constant change, and
friction. If we can come to terms with those conditions and thereby limit
their debilitating effects, we can use them as a weapon against a foe
who does not cope as well.
In practical terms this means that we must not
strive for certainty before we act for in so doing we will surrender the
initiative and pass up opportunities. We must not try to maintain positive
control over subordinates since this will necessarily slow our tempo and
inhibit initiative. We must not attempt to impose precise order to the
events of combat since this leads to a formulistic approach to war. And
we must be prepared to adapt to changing circumstances and exploit opportunities
as they arise, rather than adhering insistently to predetermined plans.
There are several points worth remembering about
our command philosophy. First, while it is based on our warfighting style,
this does not mean it applies only during war. We must put it into practice
during the preparation for war as well. We cannot rightly expect our subordinates
to exercise boldness and initiative in the field when they are accustomed
to being oversupervised in the rear. Whether the mission is training,
procuring equipment, administration, or police call, this philosophy should
apply.
Next, our philosophy requires competent leadership
at all levels. A centralized system theoretically needs only one competent
person, the senior commander, since his is the sole authority. But a decentralized
system requires leaders at all levels to demonstrate sound and timely
judgment. As a result, initiative becomes an essential condition of competence
among commanders.
Our philosophy also requires familiarity among
comrades because only through a shared understanding can we develop the
implicit communication necessary for unity of effort. And, perhaps most
important, our philosophy demands confidence among seniors and subordinates.
SHAPING THE BATTLE
Since our goal is not just the cumulative attrition of enemy strength,
it follows that we must have some scheme for how we expect to achieve
victory. That is, before anything else, we must conceive our vision of
how we intend to win.
The first requirement is to establish our intent;
what we want to accomplish and how. Without a clearly identified intent,
the necessary unity of effort is inconceivable. We must identify that
critical enemy vulnerability which we believe will lead most directly
to accomplishing our intent. Having done this, we can then determine the
steps necessary to achieve our intent. That is, we must shape the battle
to our advantage in terms of both time and space. Similarly, we must try
to see ourselves through our enemy's eyes in order to identify our own
vulnerabilities which he may attack and to anticipate how he will try
to shape the battle so we can counteract him. Ideally, when the moment
of engagement arrives, the issue has already been resolved: through our
orchestration of the events leading up to the encounter, we have so shaped
the conditions of war that the result is a matter of course. We have shaped
the action decisively to our advantage.
To shape the battle, we must project our thoughts
forward in time and space. This does not mean that we establish a detailed
timetable of events. We have already concluded that war is inherently
disorderly, and we cannot expect to shape its terms with any sort of precision.
We must not become slaves to a plan. Rather, we attempt to shape the general
conditions of war; we try to achieve a certain measure of ordered disorder.
Examples include canalizing enemy movement in a desired direction, blocking
or delaying enemy reinforcements so that we can fight a piecemealed enemy
rather than a concentrated one, shaping enemy expectations through deception
so that we can exploit those expectations or attacking a specific enemy
capability to allow us to maximize a capability of our own--such as launching
a campaign to destroy his air defenses so that we can maximize the use
of our own aviation. We should also try to shape events in such a way
that allows us several options so that by the time the moment of encounter
arrives we have not restricted ourselves to only one course of action.
The further ahead we think, the less our actual
influence becomes. Therefore, the further ahead we consider, the less
precision we should attempt to impose. Looking ahead thus becomes less
a matter of influence and more a matter of interest. As events approach
and our ability to influence them grows, we have already developed an
appreciation for the situation and how we want to shape it.
Also, the higher our echelon of command, the
greater is our sphere of influence and the further ahead in time and space
we must seek to impose our will. Senior commanders developing and pursuing
military strategy look ahead weeks, months, or more, and their areas of
influence and interest will encompass entire theaters. Junior commanders
fighting the battles and engagements at hand are concerned with the coming
hours, even minutes, and the immediate field of battle. But regardless
of the spheres of influence and interest, it is essential to have some
vision of the final result we want and how we intend to shape the action
in time and space to achieve it.
DECISION MAKING
Decision making is essential to the conduct of war since all actions
are the result of decisions--or of nondecisions. If we fail to make a
decision out of lack of will, we have willingly surrendered the initiative
to our foe. If we consciously postpone taking action for some reason,
that is a decision. Thus, as a basic for action, any decision is generally
better than no decision.
Since war is a conflict between opposing wills, we cannot make decisions
in a vacuum. We must make decisions in light of the enemy's anticipated
reactions and counteractions, recognizing that while we are trying to
impose our will on our enemy, he is trying to do the same to us.
Whoever can make and and implement his decisions
consistently faster gains a tremendous, often decisive advantage. Decision
making thus becomes a time-competitive process, and timeliness of decisions
becomes essential to generating tempo. Timely decisions demand rapid thinking,
with consideration limited to essential factors. We should spare no effort
to accelerate our decision-making ability.
A military decision is not merely a mathematical
computation. Decision making requires both the intuitive skill to recognize
and analyze the essence of a given problem and the creative ability to
devise a practical solution. This ability is the produce of experience,
education, intelligence, boldness, perception, and character.
We should base our decisions on awareness rather
than on mechanical habit. That is, we act on a keen appreciation for the
essential factors that make each situation unique instead of from conditioned
response.
We must have the moral courage to make tough
decisions in the face of uncertainty--and accept full responsibility for
those decisions--when the natural inclination would be to postpone the
decision pending more complete information. To delay action in an emergency
because of incomplete information shows a lack of moral courage. We do
not want to make rash decisions, but we must not squander opportunities
while trying to gain more information.
We must have the moral courage to make bold decisions
and accept the necessary degree of risk when the natural inclination is
to choose a less ambitious tack, for "in audacity and obstinacy will be
found safety."
Finally, since all decisions must be made in
the face of uncertainty and since every situation is unique, there is
no perfect solution to any battlefield problem. Therefore, we should not
agonize over one. The essence of the problem is to select a promising
course of action with an acceptable degree of risk, and to do it more
quickly than our foe. In this respect, "a good plan violently executed
now is better than a perfect plan executed next week."
MISSION TACTICS
Having described the object and means of maneuver warfare and its philosophy
of command, we will next discuss how we put maneuver warfare into practice.
First is through the use of mission tactics. Mission tactics are just
as the name implies: the tactic of assigning a subordinate mission without
specifying how the mission must be accomplished. We leave the manner of
accomplishing the mission to the subordinate, thereby allowing him the
freedom--and establishing the duty--to take whatever steps he deems necessary
based on the situation. The senior prescribes the method of execution
only to the degree that is essential for coordination. It is this freedom
for initiative that permits the high tempo of operations that we desire.
Uninhibited by restrictions from above, the subordinate can adapt his
actions to the changing situation. He informs his commander what he has
done, but he does not wait for permission.
It is obvious that we cannot allow decentralized
initiative without some means of providing unity, or focus, to the various
efforts. To do so would be to dissipate our strength. We seek unity, not
through imposed control, but through harmonious initiative and lateral
coordination.
COMMANDER'S INTENT
We achieve this harmonious initiative in large part through the use of
the commander's intent. There are two parts to a mission: the task to
be accomplished and the reason, or intent. The task describes the action
to be taken while the intent describes the desired result of the action.
Of the two, the intent is predominant. While a situation may change, making
the task obsolete, the intent is more permanent and continues to guide
our actions. Understanding our commander's intent allows us to exercise
initiative in harmony with the commander's desires.
In order to maintain our focus on the enemy,
we should try to express intent in terms of the enemy. The intent should
answer the question: What do I want to do to the enemy? This may not be
possible in all cases, but it is true in the vast majority. The intent
should convey the commander's vision. It is not satisfactory for the intent
to be "to defeat the enemy." To win is always our ultimate goal, so an
intent like this conveys nothing.
From this discussion, it is obvious that a clear
explanation and understanding of intent is absolutely essential to unity
of effort. It should be a part of any mission. The burden of understanding
falls on senior and subordinate alike. The senior must make perfectly
clear the result he expects, but in such a way that does not inhibit initiative.
Subordinates must have a clear understanding of what their commander is
thinking. Further, they should understand the intent of the commander
two levels up. In other words, a platoon commander should know the intent
of his battalion commander, or a battalion commander the intent of his
division commander.
FOCUS OF EFFORT
Another tool for providing unity is through the focus of effort. Of all
the efforts going on within our command, we recognize the focus of effort
as the most critical to success.
All other efforts must support it. In effect,
we have decided: This is how I will achieve a decision; everything else
is secondary.
We cannot take lightly the decision of where
and when to focus our efforts. Since the focus of effort represents our
bid for victory, we must direct it at that object which will cause the
most decisive damage to the enemy and which holds the best opportunity
of success. It involves a physical and moral commitment, although not
an irretrievable one. It forces us to concentrate decisive combat power
just as it forces us to accept risk. Thus, we focus our effort against
critical enemy vulnerability, exercising strict economy elsewhere.
Normally, we designate the focus of effort by
assigning one unit responsibility for accomplishing that effort. That
unit becomes the representation of the focus of effort. It becomes clear
to all other units in the command that they must support that unit in
its efforts. Like the commander's intent, the focus of effort becomes
a harmonizing force. Faced with a decision, we ask ourselves: "How can
I best support the focus of effort?"
Each commander should establish a focus of effort
for each mission. As the situation changes, the commander may shift the
focus of effort, redirecting the weight of his combat power in the direction
that offers the greatest success. In this way he exploits success; he
does not reinforce failure.
SURFACES AND GAPS
Put simply, surfaces are hard spots--enemy strengths--and gaps are soft
spots--enemy weaknesses. We avoid enemy strength and focus our efforts
against enemy weakness, since pitting strength against weakness reduces
casualties and is more likely to yield decisive results. Whenever possible,
we exploit existing gaps. Failing that, we create gaps.
Gaps may in fact be physical gaps in the enemy's
dispositions, but they may also be any weakness in time or space: a moment
in time when the enemy is overexposed and vulnerable, a seam in an air
defense umbrella, an infantry unit caught unprepared in open terrain,
or a boundary between two units.
Similarly, a surface may be an actual strongpoint,
or it may be any enemy strength: a moment when the enemy has just replenished
and consolidated his position or an integrated air defense system.
An appreciation for surfaces and gaps requires
a certain amount of judgment. What is a surface in one case may be a gap
in another. For example, a forest which is a surface to an armored unit
because it restricts vehicle movement can be a gap to an infantry unit
which can infiltrate through it. Furthermore, we can expect the enemy
to disguise his dispositions in order to lure us against a surface that
appears to be a gap.
Due to the fluid nature of war, gaps will rarely
be permanent and will usually be fleeting. To exploit them demands flexibility
and speed. We must actively seek out gaps by continuous and aggressive
reconnaissance. Once we locate them, we must exploit them by funneling
our forces through rapidly. For example, if our focus of effort has struck
a surface but another unit has located a gap, we shift the focus of effort
to the second unit and redirect our combat power in support of it. In
this manner we "pull" combat power through gaps from the front rather
than "pushing" it through from the rear. Commanders must rely on the initiative
of subordinates to locate the gaps and must have the flexibility to respond
quickly to opportunities rather than following predetermined schemes.
COMBINED ARMS
In order to maximize combat power, we must use all the available resources
to best advantage. To do so, we must follow a doctrine of combined arms.
Combined arms is the full integration of arms in such a way that in order
to counteract one, the enemy must make himself more vulnerable to another.
We pose the enemy not just with a problem, but with a dilemma--a no-win
situation.
We accomplish combined arms through the tactics
and techniques we use at the lower levels and through task organization
at higher levels. In so doing, we take advantage of the complementary
characteristics of different types of units and enhance our mobility and
firepower. We use each arm for missions that no other arm can perform
as well; for example, we assign aviation a task that cannot be performed
equally well by artillery. An example of the concept of combined arms
at the very lowest level is the complementary use of the automatic weapon
and grenade launcher within a fire team. We pin an enemy down with the
high-volume, direct fire of the automatic weapon, making him a vulnerable
target for the grenade launcher. If he moves to escape the impact of the
grenades, we engage him with the automatic weapon.
We can expand the example to the MAGTF level:
We use assault support to quickly concentrate superior ground forces for
a breakthrough. We use artillery and close air support to support the
infantry penetration, and we use deep air support to interdict enemy reinforcements.
Targets which cannot be effectively suppressed by artillery are engaged
by close air support. In order to defend against the infantry attack,
the enemy must make himself vulnerable to the supporting arms. If he seeks
cover from the supporting arms, our infantry can maneuver against him.
In order to block our penetration, the enemy must reinforce quickly with
his reserve. But in order to avoid our deep air support, he must stay
off the roads, which means he can only move slowly. If he moves slowly,
he cannot reinforce in time to prevent our breakthrough. We have put him
in a dilemma.
CONCLUSION
We have discussed the aim and characteristics of maneuver warfare. We
have discussed the philosophy of command necessary to support this style
of warfare. And we have discussed some of the tactics of maneuver warfare.
By this time it should be clear that maneuver warfare exists not so much
in the specific methods used--we eschew formulas--but in the mind of the
Marine, In this regard, maneuver warfare--like combined arms--applies
equally to the Marine expeditionary force commander and the fire team
leader. It applies regardless of the nature of the conflict, whether amphibious
operations or sustained operations ashore, of low or high intensity, against
guerrilla or mechanized foe, in desert or jungle.
Maneuver warfare is a way of thinking in and
about war that should shape our every action. It is a state of mind born
of a bold will, intellect, initiative, and ruthless opportunism. It is
a state of mind bent on shattering the enemy morally and physically by
paralyzing and confounding him, by avoiding his strength, by quickly and
aggressively exploiting his vulnerabilities, and by striking him in the
way that will hurt him most. In short, maneuver warfare is a philosophy
for generating the greatest decisive effect against the enemy at the least
possible cost to ourselves--a philosophy for "fighting smart."
Chapter 1. THE NATURE OF WAR
1. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. and ed. M. Howard and P. Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984) p. 119.
2. B. H. Liddell Hart, as quoted in Encyclopedia Britannica, 1919.
3. A. A. Vandergrift, "Battle Doctrine for Front Line Leaders," (Third Marine Division, 1944) p. 7.
4. For the definitive treatment of the nature and theory of war, see the unfinished classic, On War, by Clausewitz. All Marine officers should consider this book essential reading. Read the Princeton University Press edition, the best English translation available. This version also includes several valuable essays on the book and author and a useful guide to reading On War.
5. In the strict legal sense, the United States enters a state of war only by formal declaration of Congress, which possesses the sole constitutional power to do so. The United States has declared war on five occasions: with Britain (1812); with Mexico (1846); with Spain (1898); with Germany and Austria-Hungary (1917); and with Japan, Germany, Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary and Rumania (1941-2). A President, as commander in chief, may commit U.S. Forces to military action without a declaration of war when the circumstances do not warrant or permit time for such a declaration. Militarily there will be little if any distinction between war and military action short of war. Within this context, this book will focus on the military aspects of war, and the term war as discussed here will apply to that state of hostilities between or among nations regardless of the existence of a declaration of war.
6. Clausewitz, On War, p. 121.
7. For a first-hand description of human experience and reaction in war, read Guy Sajer's The Forgotten Soldier (Annapolis, MD: Nautical and Aviation Publishing Co., 1988), a powerful account of the author's experience as a German infantryman on the eastern front during the Second World War and ultimately a tribute to the supremacy of the human will.
8. Clausewitz: "Kind-hearted people might, of course, think there was some ingenious way to disarm or defeat an enemy without too much bloodshed, and might imagine this is the true goal of the art of war. Pleasant as it sounds, it is a fallacy that must be exposed: war is such a dangerous business that the mistakes which come from kindness are the very worst. . . "This is how the matter must be seen, It would be futile--even wrong--to try to shut one's eyes to what war really is from sheer distress at its brutality." On War, pp. 75-76.
9. For an insightful study of the reaction of men to combat, see S.L.A. Marshall's Men Against Fire (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1961).
10. The American Heritage Dictionary, (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1983).
11. In his often-quoted maxim, Napoleon assigned an actual ratio: "In
war, the moral is to the material as three to one."
Chapter 2. THE THEORY OF WAR
1. Clausewitz, On War, p. 87.
2. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. S.B. Griffith (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981) p. 85. Like On War, The Art of War should be on every Marine officer's list of essential reading. Short and simple to read, The Art of War is every bit as valuable today as when it was written about 400 B.C.
3. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis (New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 1923) vol. II, p. 5. The passage continues: "Nearly all battles
which are regarded as masterpieces of the military art, from which have
been derived the foundation of states and the fame of commanders, have
been battles of manoeuvre in which the enemy has found himself defeated
by some novel expedient or device, some queer, swift, unexpected thrust
or stratagem. In many battles, the losses of the victors have been small
There is required for the composition of a great commander not only massive
common sense and reasoning power, not only imagination, but also an element
of legerdemain, an original and sinister touch, which leaves the enemy
puzzles as well as beaten. It is because military leaders are credited
with gifts of this order which enable them to ensure victory and save
slaughter that their profession is held in such high honour . . .
"There are many kinds of manoeuvre in war, some
only of which take place upon the battlefield. There are manoeuvres far
to the flank or read. There are manoeuvres in time, in diplomacy, in mechanics,
in psychology; all of which are removed from the battlefield, but react
often decisively upon it, and the object of all is to find easier ways,
other than sheer slaughter, of achieving the main purpose."
4. Clausewiz, On War, p. 87. We prefer the phrase with military force rather than by military force as translated since military force does not replace the other elements of national power, but supplements them.
5. Ibid., pp. 87-88.
6. Clausewitz, On War, p. 77.
7. The National Security Strategy of the United States (Washington: The White House, 1988), pp. 7-8, lists the elements of national power as moral and economic example, military strength, economic vitality, alliance relationships, public diplomacy, security assistance, development assistance, science and technology cooperation, international organizations, and diplomatic mediation.
8. Also referred to as grand strategy or the policy level. From JCS Pub. 1-02: "National Strategy--(DOD, IADB) The art and science of developing and using the political, economic, and psychological powers of a nation, together with its armed forces, during peace and war, to secure national objectives."
9. JCS Pub. 1-02: "Military Strategy--(DOD, IADB) The art and science of employing the armed forces of a nation to secure the objectives of national policy by the application of force or the threat of force."
10. JCS Pub. 1-02: "Tactical Level of War--(DOD) The level of war at which battles and engagements are planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives."
11. JCS Pub. 1-02: "Operational Level of War--(DOD) The level of war at which campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objectives within theaters or areas of operations. Activities at this level link tactics and strategy by establishing operational objectives needed to accomplish the strategic objectives, sequencing events to achieve the operational objectives, initiating actions, and applying resources to bring about and sustain these events. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative support of tactical forces, and provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic objectives."
12. Clausewitz, On War, pp. 84, 357-359.
13. Ibid., p. 357.
14. Clausewitz argued (p. 524) that while the offense is an integral component of the concept of defense, the offense is conceptually complete in itself. The introduction of the defense into the concept of the offense, he argued, is a necessary eveil and not an integral component.
15. Clausewitz, On War, p. 528.
16. The United States Army has also adopted a doctrine based on maneuver, called "AirLand Battle," The principal doctrinal source is Field Manual 100-5, Operations (1986).
17. JCS Pub. 1-02: "Combat Power--(DOD, NATO) The total means of destructive and/or disruptive force which a military unit/formation can apply against the opponent at a given time."
18. Clausewitz, On War, p. 194.
19. Ibid., p. 617.
20. Tempo is often associated with a mental process known variously as the "Decision Cycle," "OODA Loop," or "Boyd Cycle," after retired Air Force Colonel John Boyd who pioneered the concept in his lecture, "The Patterns of Conflict." Boyd identified a four-step mental process: observation, orientation, decision, and action. Boyd theorized that each party to a conflict first observes the situation. On the basis of the observation, he orients; that is, he makes an estimate of the situation. On the basis of the orientation, he makes a decision. And, finally, he implements the decision--he acts. Because his action has created a new situation, the process begins anew. Boyd argued that the party that consistently completes the cycle faster gains an advantage that increases with each cycle. His enemy's reactions become increasingly slower by comparison and therefore less effective until, finally, he is overcome by events.
21. From basic physics, momentum is the product of mass and velocity: M=mv.
22. Clausewitz, On War, p. 198
23. Edward N. Luttwak, Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987) p. 8.
24. Luttwak, Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace, pp. 8-10.
25. Clausewitz, On War, p. 190.
26. Ibid.
27. We should note that this concept is meaningless in attrition warfare in its purest form, since the identification of critical vulnerability by definition is based on selectivity, which is a foreign thought to the attritionist. In warfare by attrition, any target is as good as any other as long as it contributes to the cumulative destruction of the enemy.
28. Sometimes known as the center of gravity. However, there is a danger
in using this term. Introducing the term into the theory of war, Clausewitz
wrote (p. 485): "A center of gravity is always found where the mass is
concentrated the most densely. It presents the most effective target for
a blow; furthermore, the heaviest blow is that struck by the center of
gravity." Clearly, Clausewitz was advocating a climactic test of strength
against strength "by daring all to win all" (p. 596). This approach is
consistent with Clausewitz' historical perspective. But we have since
come to prefer pitting strength against weakness. Applying the term to
modern warfare, we must make it clear that by the enemy's center of gravity
we do not mean a source of strength, but rather a critical vulnerability.
Chapter3. PREPARING FOR WAR
1. Hans von Seekt, Thoughts of a Soldier, trans. G. Waterhouse (London: Ernest Benn Ltd.,1930) p. 123.
2. Erwin Rommel, The Rommel Papers, ed. B. H. Liddell Hart, trans. P. Findlay (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1985) p. 226.
3. George S. Patton, Jr., Cavalry Journal, April 1922, p. 167.
4. JCS Pub. 1-02: "Campaign Plan--(DOD, IADB) A plan for a series of